Your dog yelps out of nowhere. Or stumbles sideways crossing the room. Or stares at the wall for thirty seconds and then walks away like nothing happened.

You know something is off. But what body system do you even start investigating?

The answer, more often than you'd expect, is the nervous system. It controls everything movement, pain, digestion, heartbeat, vision, balance, and even your dog's ability to recognise you. When something goes wrong with a nerve, the brain, or the spinal cord, it shows up in ways that look nothing like a "brain problem" on the surface.

This guide explains how your dog's nervous system works, what each part does, and most practically what goes wrong and how to recognise it early.

Key Takeaways

• Your dog's nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves throughout the rest of the body).
• The brain has three sections the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem each responsible for a different set of functions.
• Neurons are the fundamental working units of the nervous system. They transmit electrical signals that make everything from breathing to tail-wagging possible.
• The autonomic nervous system handles unconscious life functions like heart rate, digestion, and pupil size without your dog (or you) having to think about it.
• The primary signs of nervous system problems in dogs include seizures, tremors, behaviour changes, loss of coordination, weakness, and paralysis.
• Many nervous system conditions are treatable if caught early. The key is knowing what to watch for and acting quickly when you see it.
• Nutritional deficiencies especially vitamin B1 (thiamine) and B6 can cause serious neurological signs in dogs, including seizures and loss of motor control.

What Is the Nervous System?

The nervous system is the body's communication and control network. Think of it like the electrical wiring in a building — it connects every room to a control panel, sends signals in both directions, and keeps everything running in coordination.

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, the nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and several different kinds of nerves found throughout the body. Together, they create complex circuits through which animals experience and respond to sensations.

Every time your dog sniffs a cricket, recoils from a hot road, wags at your voice, or adjusts its balance on a staircase — that is the nervous system doing its job. It collects information from the world, processes it, and tells the body how to respond.

When the system fails — due to disease, injury, infection, or nutritional deficiency the results show up in the body as stumbling, trembling, seizures, paralysis, behavioural changes, blindness, or simply a dog that is "not right."

The Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord

The nervous system is divided into two broad parts. The first is the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord.

The CNS is the command centre. Everything else in the body eventually reports to it and receives instructions from it.

The brain and spinal cord are not floating freely inside the skull and spine. They are protected by three layers of tissue called the meninges a word you may have heard in the context of meningitis, which is inflammation of these protective layers.

Inside these membranes, a clear fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds and cushions both the brain and spinal cord. The Merck Veterinary Manual describes CSF as a fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It also transports nutrients and removes waste products. When a vet performs a "spinal tap," they are collecting a sample of this fluid to test for infections, inflammation, or bleeding in the central nervous system.

The Three Sections of the Brain

The brain is divided into three main sections. Each section does something different, and understanding this helps explain why different types of brain damage produce different symptoms.

1. The Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is the centre of conscious decision-making, according to the Merck Veterinary Manual.

The cerebrum handles:

• Voluntary movement (deciding to walk, run, fetch)
• Sensory perception (processing smell, vision, touch, sound)
• Learning, memory, and behaviour
• Recognition of people, places, and other animals

When the cerebrum is damaged by a tumour, stroke, infection, or injury the signs include seizures, behavioural changes, aimless pacing or circling, partial or full blindness, and inability to recognise the owner. These are signs the Merck Veterinary Manual specifically describes as consequences of cerebrum injuries.

2. The Cerebellum

The cerebellum sits at the back of the brain. Its job, as the Merck Veterinary Manual states, is involvement in movement and motor control.

More specifically, the cerebellum coordinates movement. It does not initiate movement that comes from the cerebrum but it fine-tunes every motion so it is smooth, accurate, and balanced. It is why your dog can walk in a straight line, place its paw in exactly the right spot, and catch a ball without falling over.

When the cerebellum is damaged, dogs do not become paralysed. Instead, their movements become uncoordinated and exaggerated. They take wide, swaying steps. They overshoot when reaching for things. They may have a strange, bouncy, stumbling gait. This is called ataxia, and it is the hallmark of cerebellar disease.

3. The Brain Stem

The brain stem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. The Merck Veterinary Manual describes it as the section that controls many basic life functions.

Those functions include:

• Breathing rate
• Heart rate
• Blood pressure
• Alertness and consciousness
• Swallowing

The brain stem also contains 12 pairs of cranial nerves the nerves that control everything in the head and face, including vision, eye movement, hearing, smell, facial movement, and the ability to swallow and bark.

Brain stem damage is the most immediately life-threatening type of brain injury. If breathing or heart rate are disrupted, the animal can die quickly. A dog with brain stem disease may show a sudden change in consciousness, difficulty breathing, abnormal eye movements, inability to swallow, or collapse.

The Spinal Cord: The Highway Between Brain and Body

The spinal cord is a long bundle of nerve tissue that runs from the base of the brain down through the spine. It carries signals in both directions: instructions from the brain going down to the body, and sensory information from the body going up to the brain.

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, the spinal cord of dogs is divided into regions that correspond to the vertebral bodies the bones that make up the spine in the following order from neck to tail:

This is why the location of a spinal injury matters so much. A cervical (neck) spinal cord injury can affect all four legs and even breathing. A lumbar (lower back) injury may affect only the hind legs and bladder control, with the front legs completely unaffected.

The Merck Veterinary Manual describes this clearly: a spinal cord injury can cause loss of feeling and paralysis below the level of the injury. Mild injuries cause clumsy movement and mild weakness. Moderate injuries cause greater weakness. Severe injuries cause complete paralysis and loss of feeling.

This is also why disc where an intervertebral disc slips and compresses the spinal  produces such variable symptoms depending on where the disc is.

Neurons: The Cells That Run Everything

The entire nervous system is built from one kind of cell: the neuron.

Both the central and peripheral nervous systems contain billions of neurons, according to the Merck Veterinary Manual. Neurons connect with each other to form neurological circuits. Information travels along these circuits via electrical signals.

Every neuron has three parts:

• Cell body — the control centre of the neuron, containing the nucleus
• Dendrites — short branches that receive incoming signals from other neurons and pass them toward the cell body
• Axon — a long extension that carries the signal away from the cell body, toward the next neuron or toward a muscle or gland

At the end of the axon, when a signal arrives, the neuron releases chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals cross a tiny gap called a synapse and latch onto the dendrites of the next neuron, passing the signal along.

Think of it like a relay race. Each neuron is a runner holding a baton. The baton (signal) gets handed off at the synapse from one runner to the next, all the way from the source of a sensation to the brain, and from the brain back to the muscle that needs to respond.

Many axons are wrapped in a fatty protective sheath called myelin. Myelin insulates the axon and speeds up electrical transmission like insulation around an electrical wire. When myelin is damaged (as in some degenerative diseases), nerve signals slow down or stop, causing weakness, paralysis, or coordination problems. Vitamin B12 is essential for maintaining healthy myelin sheaths which is why B12 deficiency can cause nerve damage over time.

Types of Neurons: Sensory, Motor, and Autonomic

Not all neurons do the same job. There are three main types, and they work together in a coordinated loop.

Sensory Neurons

Sensory neurons carry information from the body to the spinal cord or brain stem, and then upward to the cerebellum, brain stem, and cerebrum for interpretation.

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, sensory information includes: pain, body position, touch, temperature, taste, hearing, balance, vision, and smell.

Every time your dog feels the texture of the ground under its paws, hears a sound from across the room, or reacts to a painful vaccination sensory neurons are carrying that information toward the brain.

Motor Neurons

Motor neurons carry responses from the spinal cord and brain back out to the body.

Inside the spinal cord, the axons of motor neurons form bundles called tracts, which transmit information to motor peripheral nerves going to muscles in the limbs, as the Merck Veterinary Manual explains. Motor neurons are responsible for all voluntary movement and muscle control.

When motor neurons or their tracts are damaged, muscles lose their instruction signal. The result is weakness or paralysis the muscle physically cannot contract without the command signal from the motor neuron.

The Interaction Between Sensory and Motor

Sensory and motor neurons are always working together. Your dog steps on a sharp stone: sensory neurons fire a pain signal to the brain. The brain processes it and fires back through motor neurons: lift the foot. This happens faster than conscious thought.

The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal Nerves and Cranial Nerves

The second major division of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) all the nerves found outside the brain and spinal cord.

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, neurons in the PNS combine to form two groups of nerves:

Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord at each vertebral level and branch outward into the body. They extend axons into the front legs, hind legs, bladder, anus, and tail. From there, they subdivide into progressively smaller nerves that cover every surface and interior region of the body.

When a spinal nerve is compressed or damaged by a herniated disc, a tumour, or a trauma the result is a loss of feeling, weakness, or paralysis in the body region that nerve serves. This is why a dog with a lumbar disc problem can have weakness only in the hind legs, while the front legs remain fully functional.

Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that connect the head and face directly to the brain stem. The Merck Veterinary Manual's neurological evaluation section confirms that each pair connects to a specific segment of the brain stem.

The 12 cranial nerve pairs collectively control:

• Smell
• Vision and eye movement
• Pupil constriction
• Facial sensation and movement (including the ability to blink and chew)
• Hearing and balance
• Swallowing and barking
• Tongue movement
• Neck muscle control

When a vet tests your dog's cranial nerves shining a light in the eyes, touching the eyelid to trigger a blink reflex, or gently touching the nose they are checking whether the brain stem and its nerve pathways are working correctly. Abnormalities help locate the precise site of damage.

The Autonomic Nervous System: The Part That Runs Silently

This is the part of the nervous system your dog never has to think about because it never stops running on its own.

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, the autonomic nervous system is a specialised set of neurons that controls and regulates basic, unconscious bodily functions that support life. It sends axons from the brain stem and spinal cord to the heart muscle, the digestive system, the pupils of the eyes, and other organs.

Specific functions include:

• Regulating heart rate and blood pressure
• Controlling breathing depth and rate
• Managing digestion triggering the stomach and intestines to move food
• Controlling pupil size (widening in dim light, narrowing in bright light)
• Regulating bladder and bowel emptying
• Controlling sweating and temperature regulation

The autonomic nervous system has two sub-divisions:

Sympathetic system the "fight or flight" response. When your dog is startled, excited, or scared, the sympathetic system activates: heart rate increases, pupils dilate, muscles prepare for action.

Parasympathetic system the "rest and digest" response. When your dog is calm and eating, the parasympathetic system dominates: digestion speeds up, heart rate slows, the body conserves energy.

Damage to the autonomic nervous system can cause abnormal heart rhythms, inability to control urination or defecation, abnormal pupil responses, or digestive dysfunction symptoms that can look confusing because they don't obviously point to a "brain" problem.

Reflexes: The Nervous System's Fast Shortcut

The Merck Veterinary Manual introduces the nervous system with a specific example: "Reflexes are simple networks found in the nervous system of all animals. For example, when the eyelid is touched, it closes; when the toe is pinched, the foot pulls away automatically."

A reflex is a pre-programmed response that bypasses the conscious brain entirely. It runs through the spinal cord and comes back out without needing to travel all the way up to the cerebrum for processing. This is why reflexes are faster than conscious thought.

The patellar reflex tapping the knee tendon is one vets use frequently. In a normal dog, a tap on the patellar tendon makes the leg extend automatically. An absent or reduced reflex suggests the motor neuron supplying that muscle has been damaged. An exaggerated reflex can suggest the spinal cord pathway above the reflex arc is damaged (because the spinal cord normally sends inhibitory signals that dampen reflexes).

This is why vets spend significant time tapping, pinching, and touching dogs during a neurological examination. They are not being thorough for the sake of it they are using reflex testing to locate exactly where in the nervous system the damage is.

What Can Go Wrong: Types of Nervous System Disease

The Merck Veterinary Manual lists the main categories of diseases that affect the dog's nervous system:

A few of these deserve specific attention for Indian dog parents:

Distemper virus is a viral infection that attacks the nervous system of dogs. It causes twitching, seizures, paralysis, and loss of motor control. Distemper was once devastating but is now preventable with vaccination. For a full overview, see our blog on Canine Distemper Virus: Cross-Species Risks.

Rabies is a viral disease that attacks the central nervous system and is invariably fatal once signs appear. India accounts for a significant percentage of the world's rabies cases. Vaccination is mandatory by law. For more on vaccination timelines, see our Complete Guide to Puppy Vaccination Schedule in India.

Tick-borne diseases tick bites can directly cause paralysis by injecting neurotoxins into the dog's bloodstream. This is distinct from the blood-borne tick diseases like ehrlichiosis the tick's saliva itself can cause a progressive, ascending paralysis that reverses when the tick is removed. Year-round tick prevention is nervous system protection.

Metabolic causes liver disease, kidney failure, low blood sugar, and thyroid problems can all produce neurological signs including seizures, stupor, and behavioural changes. This is why a dog having its first seizure needs blood tests, not just neurological imaging.

Nutritional deficiency the Merck Veterinary Manual specifically states that a lack of vitamin B1 (thiamine) in the diet can cause loss of motor control, stupor, seizures, and coma in dogs. Inadequate amounts of vitamin B6 can cause seizures. Many Indian dogs on unbalanced home-cooked diets predominantly roti, rice, or boiled vegetables with minimal meat may have inadequate B-vitamin intake over time.

The Merck Veterinary Manual also notes that neurological diseases are often more common in a particular breed or sex, or tend to occur at a certain age. This is why breed history matters when a dog develops neurological signs a 6-year-old Labrador with progressive hind limb weakness will be evaluated differently from a 1-year-old Border Collie with ataxia.

Warning Signs Every Dog Owner Must Know

According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, the primary signs of nervous system disorders include:

• Behavioural changes — sudden aggression, unusual fear, disorientation, staring at walls, not recognising familiar people
• Seizures — uncontrolled muscle activity, loss of consciousness, paddling of legs, loss of bladder or bowel control
• Tremors — rhythmic involuntary muscle shaking that can affect one area or the whole body. For a detailed guide on what causes trembling and when it's an emergency, see How to Prevent Trembling in Your Dog
• Pain — yelping without being touched, reluctance to move the neck or back, guarding a limb
• Numbness or reduced sensation — the dog does not respond normally to pinching the paw
• Lack of coordination (ataxia) — stumbling, weaving, misjudging distances
• Weakness or paralysis of one or more legs — dragging legs, inability to stand, knuckling of the paw

Some of these signs appear suddenly. Others progress gradually over days, weeks, or even months. Slow progression does not mean lower severity some of the most serious nervous system conditions, like degenerative myelopathy, advance slowly but irreversibly.

One important Merck Veterinary Manual note: some injuries to the nervous system can cause damage that is not evident until 24 to 48 hours after the injury occurs. If your dog was in an accident or experienced head trauma, and appears fine immediately after watch closely for the next two days. Signs can emerge after a delay.

How Vets Examine the Nervous System

When you bring a dog with possible neurological signs to a vet, the examination is structured and systematic. The Merck Veterinary Manual explains that a neurologic examination evaluates four areas: the head and cranial nerves, the gait (walk), the neck and front legs, and the torso, hind legs, anus, and tail.

Here is what a vet is checking and why:

Observation of gait — how the dog walks tells the vet an enormous amount. A swaying walk suggests the cerebellum. Dragging of one hind leg suggests lumbar spinal cord disease. Falling to one side suggests vestibular system disease.

Cranial nerve tests — shining a light in the eyes (pupillary reflex), touching the eyelid (blink reflex), touching the nose (withdrawal), and checking for spontaneous abnormal eye movements. Each test maps to a specific cranial nerve and brain stem segment.

Postural reactions — the vet places the dog's paw upside down on the floor. A healthy dog instantly rights the paw. A dog with a spinal cord or brain problem may leave the paw knuckled under. This tests the dog's awareness of its own limb position something called proprioception.

Spinal reflexes — tapping the patellar tendon, testing the withdrawal reflex (pinching the toe). These test the spinal cord at specific levels and help localise the injury.

Spinal pain evaluation — the vet palpates the neck and back, watching for a pain response. This is done last to avoid distressing the dog early.

After the physical examination, laboratory testing often follows: blood and urine tests, x-rays, a spinal tap to analyse cerebrospinal fluid, or imaging with CT scan or MRI.

Nutrition and the Nervous System

The nervous system cannot function without the right nutrients. Several deficiencies directly cause neurological disease in dogs — and several dietary choices support long-term nerve health.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

The Merck Veterinary Manual is specific: a lack of thiamine in the diet can cause loss of motor control, stupor, seizures, and coma in dogs. Thiamine is critical for energy production in the brain and nervous system. Without it, nerve cells literally run out of fuel.

Thiamine deficiency is more common in dogs fed exclusively raw fish (which contains thiaminase, an enzyme that destroys thiamine) or unbalanced commercial diets.

Vitamin B6

The Merck Veterinary Manual also states: inadequate amounts of B6 can cause seizures. Vitamin B6 is involved in neurotransmitter synthesis the chemicals that nerves use to communicate across synapses.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids (DHA and EPA)

DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) is one of the primary structural fats of the brain. During puppy development, DHA is essential for building the brain and retina. In adult dogs, omega-3 fatty acids reduce neuroinflammation and support overall cognitive function. Research has also linked omega-3 supplementation to improved cognitive scores in ageing dogs.

Choline

Choline is the precursor to acetylcholine the primary neurotransmitter at the junction between nerves and muscles, and throughout the parasympathetic nervous system. Without adequate choline, nerve signal transmission and muscle coordination are impaired.

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is critical for myelin sheath maintenance. Myelin is the fatty insulation around axons that speeds up nerve signal transmission. B12 deficiency causes nerve fibre damage that progresses slowly but can result in weakness, incoordination, and neuropathy if uncorrected.

For dogs recovering from neurological illness, or those on diets that may be nutritionally incomplete, a dedicated neurological support supplement can help bridge the gap. PET NEURON SYRUP by MPS (Upto 15% OFF on Animeal) uses Ayurvedic herbs like Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri), Shankhpushpi, and Ashwagandha each with documented neuroprotective and adaptogenic properties to support nerve function, cognitive health, and stress resilience in dogs and cats.

NEURO-BOOST SYRUP by Alpicvet Pharmaceuticals (Upto 15% OFF on Animeal) is a veterinary formulation specifically designed to support neurological health, improve nerve function, reduce stress, and promote energy production particularly useful for dogs recovering from illness, or experiencing weakness and reduced coordination.

BCOPET PET SYRUP (Upto 15% OFF on Animeal) provides a comprehensive B-complex including Thiamine (B1), B2, B6, B12, and Choline the precise nutrients the Merck Veterinary Manual links to seizures and motor dysfunction when deficient. The B vitamins in BCOPET work together to maintain myelin sheath integrity, support neurotransmitter synthesis, and promote healthy nerve signal transmission.

These supplements support nerve health and recovery. They are not a replacement for veterinary diagnosis and treatment. A dog with active neurological signs seizures, paralysis, tremors needs a vet immediately.

When to Go to the Vet Immediately

Some neurological signs are emergencies. Others are urgent but not emergency-level. Here is how to tell the difference.

Go to an emergency vet right now if your dog:

• Has a seizure lasting more than 5 minutes or has multiple seizures within 24 hours. This is called status epilepticus and is life-threatening.
• Cannot use its hind legs sudden paralysis of the back legs, especially if it appeared in minutes
• Has lost consciousness or is completely unresponsive
• Shows severe difficulty breathing combined with weakness or altered consciousness
• Fell from a height or was hit by a vehicle nervous system damage from trauma may not be visible for 24 to 48 hours, but waiting makes it worse

Book an urgent vet appointment this week if your dog:

• Has had one or more brief seizures (any seizure in a dog that has never had one before warrants evaluation even if the dog seems fine afterward)
• Is stumbling, falling to one side, or circling repeatedly
• Shows progressive hind limb weakness not fully paralysed, but visibly weaker than before
• Has new behavioural changes sudden aggression, disorientation, unusual fearfulness, or failing to recognise you
• Is dragging one paw when walking
• Has a noticeable head tilt that was not there before

Watch closely and book within 24 hours if your dog:

• Had a single brief episode of mild trembling or unsteadiness that resolved on its own but which has never happened before
• Shows mild confusion after returning from a stressful environment (e.g., post-seizure recovery) this can be normal, but warrants logging and mentioning to a vet

For dogs that are lethargic alongside any of these neurological signs, the urgency increases significantly. See our guide on How to Prevent Lethargy in Your Dog for context on when lethargy becomes an emergency signal.

FAQ Section

What does the nervous system of a dog control?
Your dog's nervous system controls essentially everything. It manages voluntary actions like walking, eating, and picking up a toy. It manages sensory experiences pain, touch, temperature, balance, sight, hearing, and smell. It manages involuntary life-support functions heartbeat, breathing, digestion, pupil size. And it manages your dog's behaviour, personality, and ability to learn. Every system in the body connects to and depends on the nervous system. That is why neurological disease has such a wide range of signs.

How do I know if my dog has a neurological problem?
The most common signs of a neurological problem include: seizures (uncontrolled shaking, loss of consciousness, paddling legs), stumbling or falling to one side, weakness or paralysis in the legs, head tilt, rapid abnormal eye movements, dragging a paw, sudden changes in behaviour, circling in one direction, inability to recognise familiar people or environments, and loss of bladder or bowel control. Some signs develop suddenly; others appear gradually over days or weeks. If you notice any of these signs, contact a vet do not wait to see if they improve on their own.

What is the difference between the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem in a dog?
The cerebrum is the decision-making, sensory processing, and behaviour centre of the brain. Damage causes seizures, blindness, personality changes, and circling. The cerebellum coordinates smooth movement and balance. Damage causes stumbling and uncoordinated, exaggerated movements but not paralysis. The brain stem controls life functions like breathing, heart rate, and consciousness. It also connects to the cranial nerves of the face and head. Damage to the brain stem is the most immediately life-threatening of the three, because it can disrupt breathing and consciousness.

Can a dog recover from nervous system damage?
It depends on the cause, location, and severity of the damage. Some conditions like thiamine deficiency, tick paralysis, and certain infections can be fully reversed with treatment. Spinal cord compression from a disc can often be treated with surgery or medication, with good recovery if treated quickly. Brain tumours and degenerative diseases like degenerative myelopathy are generally progressive and cannot be reversed. Timing matters enormously. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that in cases of severe spinal cord injuries, surgery may need to be performed within 24 hours. The earlier treatment starts, the better the outcome in most treatable conditions.

Do nutritional deficiencies actually cause neurological problems in dogs?
Yes and this is underappreciated. The Merck Veterinary Manual explicitly identifies vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency as a cause of loss of motor control, stupor, seizures, and coma in dogs. It also links B6 deficiency to seizures. DHA deficiency impairs brain development in puppies. B12 deficiency damages the myelin sheaths around nerve fibres over time. Many Indian dogs on home-cooked diets of roti, rice, and boiled chicken without proper supplementation may have inadequate B-vitamin intake. If your dog has begun showing neurological signs and is on a home-prepared diet, mention this to your vet nutritional causes are among the most treatable.

What is a neurological examination for dogs, and what does it involve?
A neurological examination is a structured physical assessment of the nervous system. The vet evaluates the dog's mental alertness and behaviour, tests the cranial nerves (using light, touch, and reflex tests around the face and head), observes the gait (how the dog walks), evaluates postural reactions (like the paw positioning test), tests spinal cord reflexes (like the patellar reflex), assesses pain sensation, and evaluates muscle mass and symmetry. The examination helps the vet locate which part of the nervous system is affected — brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves which then guides which diagnostic tests to run next.

References

1. Thomas Schubert, DVM, DACVIM, DABVP. The Nervous System of Dogs. Merck Veterinary Manual (Pet Owner Version). Modified September 2024. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders-of-dogs/the-nervous-system-of-dogs
2. Thomas Schubert, DVM, DACVIM, DABVP. Parts of the Nervous System in Dogs. Merck Veterinary Manual (Pet Owner Version). Modified September 2024. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders-of-dogs/parts-of-the-nervous-system-in-dogs
3. Thomas Schubert, DVM, DACVIM, DABVP. Nervous System Disorders and Effects of Injuries in Dogs. Merck Veterinary Manual (Pet Owner Version). Modified June 2026. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders-of-dogs/nervous-system-disorders-and-effects-of-injuries-in-dogs
4. Thomas Schubert, DVM, DACVIM, DABVP. The Neurologic Evaluation of Dogs. Merck Veterinary Manual (Pet Owner Version). Modified April 2026. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders-of-dogs/the-neurologic-evaluation-of-dogs
5. VCA Animal Hospitals. Recognizing Signs of Illness in Pets. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/recognizing-signs-of-illness-in-cats